HARSHA
The chief sources for tracing the history of Harsha and his times are the Harsha charita written by Bana and the Travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang.
Bana was the court poet of Harsha.
Hiuen Tsang was the Chinese traveler who visited India in the seventh centuryA.D.
He stayed in India From 630 -645 AD
Besides these two sources, the dramas written by Harsha,namely Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyardarsika also provide useful information.
The Madhuben plate inscription and the Sonpat inscription are also helpful to know the chronology of Harsha.
The Banskhera inscription contains the signature of Harsha.
The founder of the family of Harsha was Pushyabhuti.
Pushyabhutis were the feudatories of the Guptas.
They called themselves Vardhanas.
After the Hun invasions they assumed independence.
The first important king of Pushyabhuti dynasty was Prabhakara vardhana.
His capital was Thaneswar, north of Delhi.
He assumed the title Maharajadhiraja and Paramabhattaraka.
Harsha‟s Military Conquests
In his first expedition, Harsha drove out Sasanka from Kanauj.
He made Kanauj his new capital.
the most powerful ruler of north India.
The most important military campaign of Harsha was against the Western Chalukya ruler Pulakesin II.
Harsha with an ambition to extend his kingdom south ofthe Narmada river marched against the Chalukya ruler.
But the Aihole inscription of Pulakesin II mentions the defeat of Harsha by Pulakesin, who after this achievement assumed the title Paramesvara.
Hiuen Tsang‟s accounts also confirm the victory of Pulakesin.
Harsha‟s last military campaign was against the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa and it was a success.
Harsha was a devout Saiva but later he became an ardent Hinayana Buddhist.
Hiuen Tsang converted him to Mahayana Buddhism.
Harsha prohibited the use of animal food in his kingdom and punished those who kill any living being.
Allahabad Conference
Hiuen Tsang mentions in his account about the conference held at Allahabad, known as Prayag.
It was the one among the conferences routinely convened by Harsha once in five years.
Harsha gave away his enormous wealth as gifts to the members of all religious sects.
The maintenance of public records was the salient feature of Harsha‟s administration.
Harsha‟s army consisted of the traditional four divisions – foot, horse, chariot and elephant.
The archive of the Harsha period was known as nilopitu and it was under the control of special officers.
The brick temple of Lakshmana at Sirpur with its rich architecture is assigned to the period of Harsha.
Harsha was a great patron of learning.
His biographer Banabhatta adorned his royal court.
Besides Harshacharita, he wrote Kadambari.
Other literary figures in Harsha‟s court were Matanga Divakara and the famous Barthrihari, who was the poet,philosopher and grammarian.
Harsha himself authored three plays -Ratnavali, Priyadarsika and Nagananda.
Harsha patronised the Nalanda University by his liberal endowments.
It attainedinternational reputation as a centre of learning during his reign.
HiuenTsang visited the Nalanda University and remained as a student for some time.
The most famous among them were the Hinayana University of Valabhi and the Mahayana University of Nalanda.
Hiuen Tsang gives a very valuable account of the NalandaUniversity.
The term Nalanda means“giver of knowledge”.
It was foundedby Kumaragupta I during the Guptaperiod.
It was patronised by his successors and later by Harsha.
Theprofessors of the University were called panditas.
Though it was a Mahayana University, different religious subjects like the Vedas, Hinayana doctrine, Sankhya and Yoga philosophies were also taught.
In addition to that, general subjects like logic, grammar, astronomy, medicine and art were in the syllabus.
Pallava
The early Pallava rulers from 250 A.D. to 350 A.D. issued their charters in Prakrit.
Important among them were Sivaskanda varman and Vijayaskanda varman.
The second line of Pallava rulers who ruled between 350 A.D. and 550 A.D. issuedtheir charters in Sanskrit.
The most important ruler of this line was Vishnugopa who was defeated by Samudragupta during his SouthIndian expedition.
Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line.
He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly established the Pallava rule in Tondai mandalam.
also defeated the Cholas and extended the Pallava territory up to the river Kaveri.
Other great Pallava rulers of this line were Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman II.
Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)
The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during his period.
was a follower of Jainism in the early partof his career.
converted to Saivism by the influence of theSaiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias Appar.
built a Siva templeat Tiruvadi.
rock-cut temples are found in a number of places like Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Mandagappattu and Tiruchirappalli.
also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam.
His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his talents in painting.
also regarded as an expert in music.
The music inscription at Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.
Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)
also known as Mamalla, which means„great wrestler‟.
wanted to take avenge the defeat of his fatherat the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II.
Narasimha varmanI assumed the title „Vatapikonda‟.
notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka.
He restored the throne to his friend and Sri Lankan prince Manavarma.
During his reign, Hiuen Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram.
His description of Kanchi is vivid.
Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.)
Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II and Parameswar varman I and the Pallava – Chalukya conflict continued during their reign.
Narasimhavarman II became the ruler of the Pallava kingdom.
also known as Rajasimha.
The Shore temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built in this period.
He was also a great patron of art and letters.
The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to have adorned his court.
He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished during his reign.
Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta,Vadhyavidyadhara and Agamapriya.
The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the decline of Buddhism and Jainism.
The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi Movement.
They composed their hymns in the Tamil language.
These hymns revealed the importance of devotion or Bakthi.
The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the way for the spread of these two religions.
The Pallavas were great patrons of learning.
Their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of learning.
The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India and abroad.
The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi.
Dharmapala, who later became the Head of the Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar lived in the time of Simhavishnu.
Dandin, another Sanskritwriter adorned the court of Narasimhavarman II.
MahendravaramanI composed the Sanskrit play Mattavilasaprahasanam.
Tamil literature had also developed.
The Nayanmars and Alwars composedreligious hymns in Tamil.
The Devaramcomposed by Nayanmarsandthe Nalayradivyaprab andam composed by Alwars represent the religious literature of the Pallava period.
Perundevanar waspatronized by Nandivarman II and he translated the Mahabharataas Bharathavenbain Tamil.
Nandikkalambagam was another important work but the name of the author of this work is not known.
Music and dance also developed during this period.
The second stage of Pallava architecture is represented by the monolithic rathasand Mandapas found at Mamallapuram.
The five rathas, popularly called as the Panchapanadava rathas, signifies five different styles of templearchitecture.
The mandapas contain beautiful sculptures on its walls.
The most popular of these mandapas are Mahishasuramardhini Mandapa, Tirumurthi Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
TheKailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mamallapuram remain the finest examples of theearly structural temples of the Pallavas.
The Kailasanatha templeat Kanchi is the greatestarchitectural master piece of the Pallava art.
The last stage of the Pallava art is also represented by structuraltemples built by the later Pallavas.
The Vaikundaperumal temple,Muktheeswara temple and Matagenswara temples at Kanchipuram belong to this stage of architecture.
The Pallavas had also contributed to the development of sculpture.
Apart from the sculptures foundin the temples, the „Open Art Gallery‟ at
Mamallapuram remains an importantmonument bearing the sculptural beauty ofthis period.
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The Descent of the Ganges or the Penance of Arjuna is called a frescopainting in stone.
Music, dance and painting had also developed under thepatronage of the Pallavas.
The Mamandur inscription contains anote on the notation of vocal music.
The Kudumianmalai inscriptionreferred to musical notes and instruments.
The Alwars and Nayanmars composed their hymns in various musical notes. Danceand drama also developed during this period.
The sculptures of thisperiod depict many dancing postures.
The Sittannavasal paintingsbelonged to this period.
The commentary called Dakshinchitrawascompiled during the reign of Mahendravarman I, who had the titleChittirakkarapuli.
Chalukyas (543 – 755 A.D.)
The Western Chalukyas ruled over an extensive area in theDeccan for about two centuries after which the Rashtrakutas becamepowerful.
The family of Western Chalukyas had its offshoots like the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi and the Chalukyas of Kalyani.Pulakesin I was the founder of the Chalukya dynasty.
He establisheda small kingdom with Vatapi or Badami as its capital.
Pulakesin II (608-642 A.D.)
The most important ruler of this dynasty was Pulakesin II.
The Aihole inscription issued by him gives the details of his reign.
Another notable achievement of Pulakesin II wasthe defeat of Harshavardhana on the banks of the river Narmada.
He put a check to the ambition of Harsha to conquer the south.
In his first expedition against the Pallavas, Pulakesin II emergedvictorious.
But he suffered a humiliating defeat at the hands ofNarasimhavarman I near Kanchi. Subsequently, the Chalukya capital Vatapi was captured and destroyed by the Pallavas.
The mostimportant event in the reign of Pulakesin II was the visit of HiuenTsang to his kingdom.
The successor of Pulakesin II was Vikramaditya.
He once againconsolidated the Chalukya kingdom and plundered the Pallava capital,Kanchi.
Thus he had avenged his father‟s defeat and death at the handsof the Pallavas.
Kirtivarman II was the last of the rulers of the Chalukyas.
He was defeated by Dantidurga, the founder of the Rashtrakuta dynasty.
Administration and Social Life under the Chalukyas:
highly centralized,
Village autonomy was absent, great maritime power.
The Badami Chalukyas were Brahmanical Hindus but theygave respect to other religions.
Importance was given to Vedic ritesand rituals.
The founder of the dynasty Pulakesin I performed theasvamedhasacrifice.
A number of temples in honour of Vishnu,Siva and other gods were also built during this period.
Hiuen Tsangmentioned about the decline of Buddhism in western Deccan.
ButJainism was steadily on the path of progress in this region.
Ravikirti,the court poet of Pulakesin II who composed the Aihole inscriptionwas a Jain.
Art and Architecture-
developed the vesara style in the building of structural temples., reached its culmination only under the Rashtrakutasand the Hoysalas.
exist at Aihole, Badamiand Pattadakal.
Cave temple architecture was also famous, found in Ajanta, Ellora and Nasik.
best specimens of Chalukya paintings can be seen in the Badamicave temple and in the Ajanta caves.
The reception given to a Persianembassy by Pulakesin II is depicted in a painting at Ajantha.
The Chalukya temples may be divided into two stages.
Thefirst stage is represented by the temples at Aihole and Badami.
Among the seventy temples found at Aihole, four are important.1. Ladh Khan temple is a low, flat-roofed structure consisting of a pillared hall.2. Durga temple resembles a Buddha Chaitya.3. Huchimalligudi temple. 4. The Jain temple at Meguti.
Among the temples at Badami,the Muktheeswara temple and theMelagutti Sivalaya are notable for their architectural beauty.
A group offour rock-cut temples at Badami aremarked by high workmanship.
Thewalls and pillared halls are adornedby beautiful images of gods and human beings.
The second stage isrepresented by the temples atPattadakal.
There are ten temples here, four in the northern style andthe remaining six in the Dravidianstyle.
The Papanatha temple is the most notable in the northern style.
The Sangamesvara temple and theVirupaksha temple are famous for their Dravidian style.
TheVirupaksha temple is built on the model of the Kailasanatha templeat Kanchipuram.
It was built by one of the queens of VikramadityaII.
Sculptors brought from Kanchi were employed in its construction.
Rashtrakutas (755 – 975 A.D.)
The Rashtrakutas were of Kannada origin and Kannada language was their mother tongue.
Dantidurga was the founder ofthe Rashtrakuta dynasty.
He defeated the Gurjaras and capturedMalwa from them.
Then he annexed the Chalukya kingdom bydefeating Kirtivarman II.
Thus, the Rashtrakutas became a paramount power in the Deccan.
is successor Krishna I was also a great conqueror.
He defeated the Gangas and the eastern Chalukyas of Vengi.
He built the magnificent rock-cut monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora.
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The next important king of this dynasty was Govinda III.
Administration
The Rashtrakuta Empire was divided into several provinces called rashtras under the control of rashtrapatis.
They were further dividedinto vishayasor districts governed by vishayapatis.
The next subdivision was bhukti consisting of 50 to 70 villages under the controlof bhogapatis.
These officers were directly appointed by the central government.
The village administration was carried on by the village headmen.
However, the village assemblies played a significant role inthe village administration.
Society and Economy:
The Hindu sects of Vaishnavism and Saivism flourished duringthe period of Rashtrakutas.
Yet, they did not affect the progress ofJainism under the patronage of Rashtrakuta kings and officers.
Almost one third of the population of the Deccan were Jains.
There were someprosperous Buddhist settlements at places like Kanheri, Sholapur and Dharwar. There was harmony among various religions.
There was acollege at Salatogi, situated in modern Bijapur district.
An inscriptiongives details of this educational centre.
It was run by the income fromthe endowments made by the rich as well as by all the villagers onoccasions of functions and festivals.
Cultural Contributions
widely patronized the Sanskrit literature.
many scholars in the Rashtrakuta court.
Trivikrama wrote Nalachampu and the Kavirahasya was composed by Halayudha during the reign of Krishna III.
The Jain literature flourished under the patronage of the Rashtrakutas.
Amogavarsha I, who was a Jainpatronized many Jain scholars.
His teacher Jinasena composed Parsvabhudaya, a biography of Parsva in verses.
Another scholar Gunabhadra wrote the Adipurana, the life stories of various Jainsaints. Sakatayana wrote the grammer work called Amogavritti.
The great mathematician of this period, Viracharya was the authorof Ganitasaram.
Art and Architecture
The art and architecture of the Rashtrakutas were found at Ellora and Elephanta.
At Ellora, the most remarkable temple is the Kailasa temple.
It was excavated during the reign of Krishna I
It has a three-tiered sikhara or tower resembling the sikhara of the Mamallapuram rathas.
In the interior of the temple there is a pillared hall which has sixteen squarepillars.
The Kailasa temple is an architectural marvel with it beautiful sculptures.
The sculpture of the Goddess Durga is shown as slaying the Buffalo demon.
In another sculpture Ravana was making attempts to lift Mount Kailasa, the abode of Siva.
The scenes of Ramayana werealso depicted on the walls.
The general characteristics of the Kailasatemple are more Dravidian.
Elephanta is an island near Bombay.
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It was originally calledSripuri.
The Portuguese after seeing the large figure of an elephant named it Elephanta.
The sculptural art of the Rashtrakutas reached its zenith in this place.
There is a close similarity between the sculptures at Elloraand those in Elephanta.
They might have been carved by the samecraftsmen. At the entrance to the sanctum there are huge figures of dwara-palakas.
In the walls of the prakara around the sanctum thereare niches containing the images of Shiva in various forms - Nataraja,Gangadhara, Ardhanareesvara and Somaskanda.
The most imposing figure of this temple is Trimurthi.
The sculpture is six metre high.
It is said to represent the three aspects of Shiva as Creator, Preserver and Destroyer.
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